Christopher Michel · CC BY-SA 4.0

Julius figured out, at the molecular level, how the body actually feels heat and pain: he identified TRPV1, the receptor that responds to both capsaicin — the compound that makes chili peppers burn — and genuine heat, and TRPM8, which detects cold and menthol. That work explained why a chili pepper and a hot stove trigger the same sensation, and it earned him the 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, shared with Ardem Patapoutian, along with the Kavli Prize and Breakthrough Prize.